Italy) was fighting against Catiline, it is recorded that he led his praetorian. Italian recruits are not securely dated.29 The term of duty for the praetorians. 57 Macrobius, Sat. Strabo is said to have asked Augustus for his opinion of Cato. 58 Corbier (1983). 59 Dio's claim about the collegiality of the office as. There are many theories of creativity. What the latest experiment proves is not that creativity lacks any association to thinking outside-the-box, but that such is.

• • • • • (adoptive) Full name (at birth) Tiberius Claudius Drusus (later) Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus (by death) Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Father Mother Religion Claudius (;: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 AD) was from 41 to 54. A member of the, he was the son of and. He was born at in, the first (and until, the only) Roman Emperor to be born outside. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his, shared with his nephew in 37. Claudius' infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges of 's and Caligula's reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last man of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator.

He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire began the (if the earlier and Caligula's aborted attempts are not counted). Having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position; this resulted in the deaths of many. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion.

Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 AD (at age of 63), his grand-nephew and adopted son succeeded him as Emperor. His 13-year reign (slightly longer than Nero's) would not be surpassed by any successors until that of. He was a descendant of the (through ), (through and ), and the (through ); he was a great-nephew of through his full sister, a nephew of Tiberius through his father Drusus, Tiberius' brother, an uncle of Caligula and finally a great-uncle of Nero through Caligula's father and Nero's grandfather, his brother. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Family and early life [ ] Roman imperial dynasties Chronology 27 BC – 14 AD 14–37 AD 37–41 AD 41–54 AD 54–68 AD Family Succession Preceded by Followed by Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at (modern, France). He had two older siblings, and.

His mother, Antonia, may have had two other children who died young. His maternal grandparents were and, ' sister, and he was therefore the great-great grandnephew of. His paternal grandparents were, Augustus' third wife, and. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly from illness. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour.

Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a 'former mule-driver' to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests.

In 7 AD, was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Expectations about his future began to increase.

Public life [ ] His work as a budding historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began work on a history of the that was either too truthful or too critical of —then reigning as. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the existing party line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the wars of the altogether.

But the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the of was erected to honor the Imperial clan in 8 BC, Claudius' name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes, and, and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. When Augustus died in 14 AD, Claudius — then 23 — appealed to his uncle to allow him to begin the. Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments.

Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new Emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense.

They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son,, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life.

However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the,, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor (the son of Claudius' brother ) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress. A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. Assassination of Caligula (41 AD) [ ].

A coin of, showing him with his brother crowning Claudius.. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based involving the Praetorian commander and several.

There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot — particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of and, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family.

Two drastically different oil paintings by of Claudius' being proclaimed Emperor by of the. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge.

He was spirited away to the and put under their protection. Etienne De Crecy Tempovision Rarest. The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new princeps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly, claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the King. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins.

As Emperor [ ]. Bronze head of Claudius found in the at, near, Suffolk (). Potentially taken from the in during the. In 43 AD, Claudius sent with four to Britain ( Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth – particularly mines and slaves. It was also a haven for rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants.

The latter must have made an impression on the when they were displayed in the large tribal centre of, modern day. The Roman of Colonia Claudia Victricensis was established as the provincial capital of the newly established at Camulodunum, where a large. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific 'Britannicus' but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the Briton general was captured in 50 AD, Claudius granted him clemency.

Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens (adult males with; women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death.

He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause.

Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Judicial and legislative affairs [ ] Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed.

Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted from taxes.

Early in his reign, the and sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous 'Letter to the Alexandrians', which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the. One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the modern city of were not in fact citizens. The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the, that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of the were sold back into slavery.

Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments.

A famous medical example is one promoting juice as a cure for. Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health. One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the on to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder. Public works [ ] Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces.

He built two, the, begun by, and the. These entered the city in 52 AD and met at the famous. He also restored a third, the. The aqueduct in Rome He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus.

Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the, leading to, his new port just north of. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering.

The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened.

The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake was revisited many times in history, including by Emperors and, and in the. It was finally achieved by the Prince in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km 2) of new arable land. He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size. Claudius and the Senate [ ]. Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn.

When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including ) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of and back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body.

He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'. Rome 2 Total War Unlock All Factions Mod. In 47 he assumed the office of with, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance.

At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men.

(He even jokes about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond (), i.e. He also increased the number of by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of and. Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency.

The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen.

This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor. Plots and coup attempts [ ] Several attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. [ ] Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator and, the governor of and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned.

Claudius' son-in-law was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46,, the grandson of, and were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen. Was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.

Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' term as, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in the section discussing Claudius' third wife,. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius' reign. Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate-emperor relations.

Secretariat and centralization of powers [ ] Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the princeps became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. Was the secretary of correspondence.

Became the secretary of the treasury. Became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under until his execution for treason.

The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor.

This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother,. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Notes that several of them were richer than, the richest man of the.

Religious reforms [ ]. Portrait of Claudius, Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language.

Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as ) as a replacement. He was especially hard on, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its activities. [ ] Claudius opposed proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship freely. The results of all these efforts were recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire. Main article: It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the Jews within the city caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of.

Public games and entertainments [ ] According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters.

Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday. Annual games were also held in honour of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor. Claudius organised a performance of the, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the, as well as many other public games and shows.

At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought a which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by: A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia, locked in combat with the emperor Claudius. She had come when he was completing the construction of the harbour, drawn there by the wreck of a ship bringing leather hides from Gaul, and feeding there over a number of days, had made a furrow in the shallows: the waves had raised up such a mound of sand that she couldn't turn around at all, and while she was pursuing her banquet as the waves moved it shorewards, her back stuck up out of the water like the overturned keel of a boat.

The Emperor ordered that a large array of nets be stretched across the mouths of the harbour, and setting out in person with the Praetorian cohorts gave a show to the Roman people, soldiers showering lances from attacking ships, one of which I saw swamped by the beast's waterspout and sunk. — ' Historia Naturalis' IX.14–15. Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At the, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track. Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. Claudius rebuilt after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box. Marriages and personal life [ ] Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being a.

Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousin, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to, which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day.

Plautia Urgulanilla [ ] was the granddaughter of Livia's confidant. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus.

Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, the daughter of. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia.

When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was allegedly one of his own freedmen. This action made him later the target of criticism by his enemies.

Aelia Paetina [ ] Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter,. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability, although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Paetina.

Valeria Messalina [ ] Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius married, who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter,. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius — states she went so far as to compete with a to see who could have the most sexual partners in a night — and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover in a public ceremony while Claudius was.

Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the Emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children. The historian suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point. Whatever the case, the result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle. Agrippina the Younger [ ] Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, 's third wife, Claudius's divorced second wife and Claudius's niece.

According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. The truth is probably more political.

The attempted by Silius and Messalina had probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy.

Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future Emperor ) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts could rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage, to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. This feud dated back to Agrippina's actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband (Claudius's brother), actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son. Nero was married to Claudius' daughter Octavia, made joint heir with the underage, and promoted; Augustus had similarly named his grandson and his stepson as joint heirs, and Tiberius had named joint heir with his grandson. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome, when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable as was the case during Britannicus' minority.

Claudius may have previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign., who was married to Claudius's daughter, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side – not close enough to the Imperial family to prevent doubts (although that did not stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half-brother of and at this time those wounds were still fresh. Was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus. Claudius' affliction and personality [ ]. Claudius depicted as the The historian describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in relatively good detail. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused.

He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The states in his that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well. However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of. When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne.

Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life. Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century.

Prior to, (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in ', first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon. Has also been considered a possibility. As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the. They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper. According to the ancient historians he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen.

But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused. The extant works of Claudius present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his ' in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.

Scholarly works and their impact [ ] Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. States that during the reign of Tiberius – which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career – it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects.

Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included Tyrrhenica, a twenty-book history, and Carchedonica, an eight-volume history of, as well as an dictionary. He also wrote a. Despite the general avoidance of the Republican era, he penned a defense of against the charges of. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. He proposed a reform of the by the addition of, two of which served the function of the modern letters W and Y.

He officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste. Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) harshly criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches, it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge. None of the works survive but live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals.

Claudius is the source for numerous passages of. The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The speech is meticulous in details, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.

His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly, and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect, and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans did) that his ancestor had used the censorship to introduce and so used his own term to introduce his new letters. A statue of Claudius in the. The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison – possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather – and died in the early hours of 13 October 54 AD. Nearly all implicate his final wife,, as the instigator.

Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on Britannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.

Some implicate either his taster, his doctor, or the infamous poisoner as the administrator of the fatal substance. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.

Among contemporary sources, Seneca the younger ascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors on his poisoning. In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age.

Some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime. Claudius' ashes were interred in the on 24 October 54 AD, after a funeral in the manner of Augustus.

[ ] After death [ ] Divine honours [ ] Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a living and was worshipped in in his own. Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been 'hated', as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men.

Claudius' will had been changed shortly before his death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would have been considered an adult man according to Roman law only a few months later. Views of the new regime [ ] Agrippina had sent away shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence — most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime.

Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor and many of Claudius' laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them. Seneca's reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool and this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius' temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's.

Flavian and later perspectives [ ] The, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son, who had been a friend of the Emperor (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero's was burned, the was finally completed on the Caelian Hill. However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased.

Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all such cults of dead Emperors by in 237–238. The, probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of a on his birthday, the of August. And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century. Views of ancient historians [ ] The main ancient historians,, and all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone.

All three were senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious.

Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue. Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing. He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and often in public life. During his censorship of 47-8 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23-25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius' writings and to have omitted Claudius' character from his works.

Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the Emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century,, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius. In modern literature, film and radio [ ] • The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius were the books and (published in 1934 and 1935) by, both written in the to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius'.

Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. Claudius' extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, Claudius the God), to add authenticity. • In 1937, director attempted a film version of, with as Claudius. However, the lead actress suffered a near-fatal car accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were featured in the BBC documentary The Epic That Never Was (1965). The motion picture rights for a new film eventually passed to producer. • Graves's two books were the basis for a British television adaptation, produced by the.

The series starred as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on. It was a substantial critical success, and won several awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on in 1977. The 1996 7-VHS release and the later DVD release of the television series, include The Epic That Never Was documentary. • A radio adaptation of the Graves novels by and directed by, was broadcast in six one-hour episodes on beginning 4 December 2010.

The cast featured as Claudius, as Augustus, as Livia, as Tiberius and as Caligula. • In 2011, it was announced rights for a miniseries adaptation passed to HBO and BBC2. Anne Thomopoulos and Jane Tranter, producers of the popular HBO–BBC2 miniseries, are attached to the new I, Claudius project. • The 1954 film also portrayed him sympathetically, played. • In the 1960 film, Claudius is portrayed. • On television, portrayed Claudius in the 1968 British series. • The 1975 TV Special Further Up Pompeii!

(based on the sit-com ) featured as Claudius. • In the 1979 motion picture, where the role was performed by, Claudius is depicted as an idiot, in contrast to ' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man, who is perceived by others to be an idiot. • The 1985 made-for-television A.D.

Features actor as Claudius. Kiley portrays him as thoughtful, but willing to cater to public opinion as well as being under the influence of Agrippina. • In the 2004 TV film, Claudius is portrayed. • There is also a reference to Claudius' suppression of a coup in the movie, though the incident is entirely fictional. In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel The Roman. Canadian-born science fiction writer reimagined Robert Graves' Claudius story, in his two novels and.

Ancestry [ ]. • Classical Latin spelling and of the name of Claudius: • TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS IPA: • Claudius' regal name has an equivalent English meaning of 'Tiberius Claudius Caesar, the Majestic Ruler, Conqueror of the Germans'. 4 indicates the reasons for choosing this tutor, as outlined in Leon (1948). • Scramuzza (1940) p. 39. • ^ Stuart (1936).

Suhr (1955) suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power. • Major (1992) • ^ Josephus Antiquitates Iudiacae XIX. • Josephus Ant. • Josephus Bellum Iudiacum II, 204–233.

• Suetonius, Claud. 10 • Harris Rackham (1938).. Loeb Classical Library. • Pliny 5.1–5.2, Cassius Dio, 60.8, 60.9 • Scramuzza, Chap. British Museum. • ^ Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester - Britain's first Roman town.

Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ( ) • Scramuzza, Chap. • ^ Scramuzza (1940), Chap.

6 • Josephus Ant. XIX.5.3 (287). • Scramuzza (1940), Chap.

7, p.129 • Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 7 • Suetonius, Claud. 16 • Suetonius, Claud. • • Tacitus Ann. XII 57 • Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 173–4 • English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D.

Hogarth, in Momigliano (1934). Seneca Ad Polybium. • Pliny Natural History 134. • Seneca Apocolo. • There is some debate about what actually happened.

It is reported by Suetonius and in Acts (18:2), Cassius Dio minimizes the event and Josephus—who was reporting on Jewish events—does not mention it at all. Some scholars hold that it didn't happen, while others have only a few missionaries expelled for the short term. 21 • Pliny's Historia Naturalis • Humphrey, John, Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing, University of California Press, 1986, pp. 100-101 • Tac. Also Dio Rom. LXI 31, and Pliny Nat.

• Scramuzza (1940) p. 90. Momigliano (1934) pp. 6–7. Levick (1990) p. 19. • Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.212. Penguin Books, New York.. • ^ Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91–92.

See also Tac. XII 6, 7; Suet. • Levick (1990) p. 70. See also Scramuzza (1940) p. 92. • Oost (1958). • Seneca Apocolo.

• Leon (1948). • Burden, George.

11 June 2001 at the., The Medical Post, 16 July 1996. Retrieved 24 June 2007. • Murad, Ali (2010). 'A Neurological Mystery from History: The Case of Claudius Caesar'. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 19 (3): 221–7... 5, 21, 40; Dio Rom.

LX 2, 5, 12, 31. 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. • Momigliano (1934) pp. 4–6.

• The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, 1937 p.107 • Suet. • See Claudius' letter to the people of Trent (linked below), in which he refers to the 'obstinate retirement' of Tiberius. See also Josephus Ant Iud. XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's 'madness and lack of understanding.' • See Momigliano (1934) Chap. 1, note 20 (p. 83).

Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35. • Levick (1978). • Ryan (1993) refers to the historian 's account of the introduction • cf.

43 • Accounts of his death: Suet. XII 64, 66–67.

Josephus Ant. Pliny Natural History II xxiii 92, XI lxxiii 189, XXII xlvi 92. 44 • Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 19:67; 20:148 • Scramuzza (1940) pp.

92–93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was truly murdered. Indeed, the Emperor appears to have been seriously ill since at least 53 AD.

Levick (1990) pp. 76–77. Raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause.

• Levick (1990); also as opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an inveterate gossip, doesn't mention it at all.

Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. Nero 9 • Suet. Nero 33 • ^ Levick (1990) • Gradel I. Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002. P. 356–341 • Hekster, Olivier (2008)...

Emperor worship and Roman religion. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2002.

P.367 • Scramuzza, p. 29 • Vessey (1971) • Griffin (1990). XI 14 is often thought to be a good example: the digression on the history of writing is actually Claudius' own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no explicit attribution - and so there exists the possibility that the digression is Tacitus' own work or derivative of another source • Levick. Retrieved 21 January 2011. •, 1977-11-06, retrieved 2016-04-14 References [ ]. • (whole empire) • (East) and (West) • (East) and (West) with (East) and (West) as Caesares • (East) and (West) with (West) and (East) as Caesares • (East) and (West) with (West) and (East) as Caesares • (East) and (West) with (West) and (East) as Caesares • (East) and (West) with (West) and (East) as Caesares • (alone) • (West) and (East) with (Self-proclaimed Augustus) and • (East) and (West) with,, and as Caesares • ( ) • (whole empire) with son as • • • with as • with • • • • • • • with • • ( ) 395–480. • • • • • • • (first reign) • with son as co-emperor • (second reign) • • • • • • with son as co-emperor • • • • • • with brothers and and then as co-emperors • (first reign) • • • (second reign) with son as co-emperor • • • • • • • • • • • • with son as co-emperor • with as junior emperor • • • • • • • • with sons, and as junior co-emperors • • • • • • (first reign) and • (first reign) and • • (second reign) with • (second reign) and • (sole emperor) • • • • • • with brothers and and son • • • with as co-emperor • • • • • • • as usurper chosen by the • 1204–1261.