THE AFRICA-EUROPE PARTNERSHIP HANDBOOK. Partnership is a means to discover, understand and respect others, their. WHAT DOES IT MEAN.? Before exploring the process of partnership, it is important to define what partnership means. Cultures, lifestyles and ithin Scouting, partnership can be defined as. Jan 15, 2013. The extent to which workplace partnership delivers mutual gains is subject to considerable debate amongst practitioners and scholars. One of the oldest and largest examples of workplace partnership is the John Lewis Partnership that began using forms of non-union employee representation in 1929.

• • • Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition, Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism, or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of that follows the theological tradition and forms of practice of and other. Calvinists broke from the in the 16th century. Calvinism differs from on the,, and the, among other things. As declared in the and confessions, the core doctrines are predestination and election. The protestant part of this reformation was considering that the Bible be interpreted by itself, meaning the parts that are harder to understand are examined in the light of other passages where the Bible is more explicit on the matter. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the religious tradition which it denotes has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it referring to French reformer John Calvin, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word Reformed.

Early influential Reformed theologians include,,,,,,, and. In the twentieth century,,,,,,,, and were influential.

Contemporary Reformed theologians include,,,,,, and. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of; most are or, though some are. Calvinism is largely represented by,, and traditions. The biggest Reformed association is the with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.

There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the and the, as well as. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Etymology [ ] Calvinism is named after.

It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552. It was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder.

Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles. Calvin denounced the designation himself: They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me.

Calvin's: First-generation Reformed theologians include (1484–1531), (1491–1551), (1478–1541), (1482–1531), and (1489–1565). These reformers came from diverse academic backgrounds, but later distinctions within Reformed theology can already be detected in their thought, especially the priority of as a source of authority. Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a of the of and the as visible signs of the. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the bodily.

Each of these theologians also understood salvation to be by grace alone, and affirmed a doctrine of (the teaching that some people are chosen by God for ). And his successor were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent later Reformed theologians. The doctrine of was a direct inheritance from Luther. (1509–64), (1504–75), (1497–1563), (1500–62), and (1511–64) belong to the second generation of Reformed theologians. Calvin's (1536–59) was one of the most influential theologies of the era. Toward the middle of the 16th century, the Reformed began to commit their beliefs to, which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549 brought together those who followed Zwingli and Bullinger's theology of the Lord's supper, which taught that the supper simply serves as a reminder of Christ's death, and Calvin's view that the supper serves as a with Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily.

The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology. The remainder of the 16th century saw an explosion of confessional activity. The stability and breadth of Reformed theology during this period stand in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579. Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the under, which led to the formulation of the in 1563, and in.

This and the were adopted as confessional standards in the of the in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer,, and ) and Scotland (). During the, the Calvinistic produced the, which became the confessional standard for in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea. Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character. Calvinism has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this painting by c.1661 Although much of Calvin's work was in, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In, some cantons are still Reformed and some are Catholic.

Calvinism became the theological system of the majority in (see ), the (see, and ), some communities in, and parts of Germany (especially these adjacent to the Netherlands) in the, and with the likes of and his colleague. In and the then-independent, Calvinism was a significant religion. In the 16th century, the Reformation gained many supporters in Eastern Hungary and Hungarian-populated regions in Transylvania. In these parts, the Reformed nobles protected the faith.

Almost all Transylvanian dukes were Reformed. Today there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide. It was influential in France, and before being mostly erased due to the taken up by the monarch in each country.

Calvinism gained some popularity in, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of after the in 1593. Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and were Calvinists, including the English, the French and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York), and the of the Appalachian back country.,,,,, and other not satisfied with the degree to which the had been reformed, held overwhelmingly Reformed views. They are often cited among the primary founders of the United States of America. Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as.

Countries with historically sizeable Reformed communities. Was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from, who were largely, blacks who had fought for the during the. Had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the. Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th and 20th century. Especially large are those in, and. In there are 20,000 congregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South Korea, is the largest Christian denomination.

A 2011 report of the on Religious and Public Life estimated that members of Presbyterian or Reformed churches make up 7% of the estimated 801 million Protestants globally, or approximately 56 million people. Though the broadly defined Reformed faith is much larger, as it constitutes Congregationalist (0.5%), most of the United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%) and most likely some of the other Protestant denominations (38.2%). All three are distinct categories from Presbyterian or Reformed (7%) in this report. The Reformed family of churches is one of the largest Christian denominations. According to adherents.com the Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United churches represent 75 million believers worldvide. The, which includes some (most of these are primarily Reformed; see for details), has 80 million believers.

WCRC is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Many conservative Reformed churches which are strongly Calvinistic formed the which has about 70 member denominations. Most are not part of the World Communion of Reformed Churches because of its ecumenial attire. The International Conference of Reformed Churches is another conservative association. Is the only in the Calvinist tradition in the world. Theology [ ] Revelation and Scripture [ ]. See also:,, and Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word of God.

People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation. Speculation about anything which God has not revealed through his Word is not warranted. The knowledge people have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God is, and finite people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being. While the knowledge revealed by God to people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive. The seal of the, an early American Presbyterian church According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is always through his son, because Christ is the only mediator between God and people.

Revelation of God through Christ comes through two basic channels. The first is and, which is God's creating and continuing to work in the world. This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God, but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel. The second channel through which God reveals himself is, which is the gospel of from condemnation which is punishment for sin.

In Reformed theology, the Word of God takes several forms. Jesus Christ himself is the Word Incarnate. The prophecies about him said to be found in the and the ministry of the who saw him and communicated his message are also the Word of God. Further, the of ministers about God is the very Word of God because God is considered to be speaking through them. God also speaks through human writers in the, which is composed of texts set apart by God for self-revelation. Reformed theologians emphasize the Bible as a uniquely important means by which God communicates with people.

People gain knowledge of God from the Bible which cannot be gained in any other way. Reformed theologians affirm that the Bible is true, but differences emerge among them over the meaning and extent of its truthfulness.

Conservative followers of the take the view that the Bible is true and, or incapable of error or falsehood, in every place. This view is very similar to that of orthodoxy as well as modern. Another view, influenced by the teaching of and, is found in the 's. Those who take this view believe the Bible to be the primary source of our knowledge of God, but also that some parts of the Bible may be false, not witnesses to Christ, and not normative for today's church. In this view, Christ is the revelation of God, and the scriptures witness to this revelation rather than being the revelation itself. Dawn DeVries, a professor at, has written that Barth's doctrine of Scripture is not capable of resolving conflicts in contemporary churches, and proposed that Scripture not be thought of as the Word of God at all, but only human reports of the revealed Jesus Christ.

Elements Of Statistical Computing Pdf. Covenant [ ]. See also: Reformed theologians use the concept of covenant to describe the way God enters fellowship with people in history.

The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as a whole is sometimes called 'covenant theology'. However, sixteenth and seventeenth-century theologians developed a particular theological system called ' or 'federal theology' which many conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm today. This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace. The covenant of works is made with in the. The terms of the covenant are that God provides a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey God's law perfectly. Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant by eating the, they became subject to death and were banished from the garden.

This sin was passed down to all mankind because all people are said to be in Adam as a covenantal or 'federal' head. Federal theologians usually infer that Adam and Eve would have gained immortality had they obeyed perfectly. A second covenant, called the covenant of grace, is said to have been made immediately following Adam and Eve's sin. In it, God graciously offers salvation from death on condition of faith in God.

This covenant is administered in different ways throughout the Old and New Testaments, but retains the substance of being free of a requirement of perfect obedience. Through the influence of Karl Barth, many contemporary Reformed theologians have discarded the covenant of works, along with other concepts of federal theology. Barth saw the covenant of works as disconnected from Christ and the gospel, and rejected the idea that God works with people in this way. Instead, Barth argued that God always interacts with people under the covenant of grace, and that the covenant of grace is free of all conditions whatsoever. Barth's theology and that which follows him has been called 'monocovenantal' as opposed to the 'bi-covenantal' scheme of classical federal theology.

Cota Health Safe Bed Programmes on this page. Conservative contemporary Reformed theologians, such as, have also rejected the idea of covenants based on law rather than grace., however, has defended the covenant of works as combining principles of law and love. The ' diagrams the classic doctrine of the Traditionally, Reformed theologians have also followed the medieval tradition going back to before the early church councils of and on the doctrine of the. God is affirmed to be one God in three persons:,, and. The Son (Christ) is held to be eternally begotten by the Father and the from the Father and Son. However, contemporary theologians have been critical of aspects of Western views here as well. Drawing on the tradition, these Reformed theologians have proposed a ' where the persons of the Trinity only exist in their life together as persons-in-relationship. Contemporary Reformed confessions such as the and Brief Statement of Faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA) have avoided language about the attributes of God and have emphasized his work of reconciliation and empowerment of people.

Feminist theologian used the image of partnership for the persons of the Trinity. According to Russell, thinking this way encourages Christians to interact in terms of fellowship rather than reciprocity. Conservative Reformed theologian Michael Horton, however, has argued that social trinitarianism is untenable because it abandons the essential unity of God in favor of a community of separate beings. Christ and atonement [ ]. See also:,,,, and Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief that is eternally. Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ truly so that people could be saved. Christ's human nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and Lutheran.

In accord with the belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity, Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time. Because believe that Christ is bodily, they hold that Christ is bodily present in many locations simultaneously.

For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ actually became human. Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from the traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people. Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus' context and particularity as a first-century Jew. This Dutch stained glass allegory shows Christ ascending the cross with Satan and several dead people on his back. Faith is personified as a woman to the right of a naked man on the ground asking Christ the way of salvation.

John Calvin and many Reformed theologians who followed him describe Christ's work of redemption in terms of:,, and. Christ is said to be a prophet in that he teaches perfect doctrine, a priest in that on believers' behalf and offered himself as a sacrifice for sin, and a king in that he rules the church and fights on believers' behalf. The threefold office links the work of Christ to God's work in. Many, but not all, Reformed theologians continue to make use of the threefold office as a framework because of its emphasis on the connection of Christ's work to Israel. They have, however, often reinterpreted the meaning of each of the offices.

For example, Karl Barth interpreted Christ's prophetic office in terms of political engagement on behalf of the poor. Christians believe and makes it possible for believers to attain forgiveness for sin and reconciliation with God through the. Reformed Protestants generally subscribe to a particular view of the atonement called, which explains Christ's death as a sacrificial payment for sin. Christ is believed to have died in place of the believer, who is accounted righteous as a result of this sacrificial payment. Contemporary Reformed theologians such as and have criticized this view, claiming it makes God appear abusive or vindictive and sanctions violence by the strong against the weak.

See also: and In Christian theology, people are created good and in the but have become corrupted by, which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested. Reformed Christians, following the tradition of, believe that this corruption of human nature was brought on by Adam and Eve's first sin, a doctrine called. Reformed theologians emphasize that this sinfulness affects all of a person's nature, including their will.

This view, that sin so dominates people that they are unable to avoid sin, has been called. In colloquial English, the term 'total depravity' can be easily misunderstood to mean that people are absent of any goodness or unable to do any good. However the Reformed teaching is actually that while people continue to bear God's image and may do things that appear outwardly good, their sinful intentions affect all of their nature and actions so that they are not pleasing to God. Some contemporary theologians in the Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the PC(USA)'s Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness. These theologians have sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human life that have been affected by sin. Salvation [ ]. See also:,, and Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who have in Christ.

Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save. Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that is sufficient. Is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more recently it is sometimes given less importance out of concerns. People are not on their own able even to fully of their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their sinfulness.

Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from God's free and gracious act. Is the part of salvation in which God makes the believer holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God and for other people.

The accomplished by believers as they are sanctified are considered to be the necessary outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved. Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the son of God one has become. Predestination [ ]. Main article: Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that God some people to be saved. This and not based on any characteristic or action on the part of the person chosen.

This view is opposed to the view that God's or based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God. Karl Barth reinterpreted the Reformed doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ. Individual people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ. Reformed theologians who followed Barth, including, David Migliore, and, have argued that the traditional Reformed concept of predestination is speculative and have proposed alternative models. These theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation. God's justice towards and condemnation of sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them to himself. Five points of Calvinism [ ] The Five Points of (TULIP).

• • • Most objections to and attacks on Calvinism focus on the 'five points of Calvinism', also called the doctrines of grace, and remembered by the 'TULIP'. The five points are popularly said to summarize the; however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement. The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented by David N.

Steele and Curtis C. The origins of the five points and the acronym are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in the, a less known Reformed reply to the Arminians that occurred prior to the Canons of Dort. The acronym was used by as early as circa 1905. An early printed appearance of the T-U-L-I-P acronym is in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book, The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination. The acronym was very cautiously if ever used by Calvinist apologists and theologians before the booklet by Steele and Thomas. More recently, theologians have sought to reformulate the TULIP acronym to more accurately reflect the Canons of Dort.

The central assertion of these points is that God saves every person upon whom he has mercy, and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or inability of humans. • ', also called 'total inability', asserts that as a consequence of the, every person is enslaved to sin. People are not by nature inclined to love God, but rather to serve their own interests and to reject the rule of God.

Thus, all people by their own faculties are morally unable to choose to follow God and be saved (the term 'total' in this context refers to sin affecting every part of a person, not that every person is as evil as they could be). This doctrine is derived from 's explanation of. While the phrases 'totally depraved' and 'utterly perverse' were used by Calvin, what was meant was the inability to save oneself from sin rather than being absent of goodness. Phrases like 'total depravity' cannot be found in the Canons of Dort, and the Canons as well as later Reformed orthodox theologians arguably offer a more moderate view of the nature of fallen humanity than Calvin.

• ' asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, his choice is unconditionally grounded in his mercy alone. God has chosen from eternity to extend mercy to those he has chosen and to withhold mercy from those not chosen. Those chosen receive salvation through Christ alone.

Those not chosen receive the just wrath that is warranted for their sins against God. • ', also called 'particular redemption' or 'definite atonement', asserts that Jesus's was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it accomplished. This implies that only the sins of the elect were for by Jesus's death. Calvinists do not believe, however, that the atonement is limited in its value or power, but rather that the atonement is limited in the sense that it is intended for some and not all. Some Calvinists have summarized this as 'The atonement is sufficient for all and efficient for the elect.' • ', also called 'efficacious grace', asserts that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith.

This means that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual certainly will be saved. The doctrine holds that this purposeful influence of God's cannot be resisted, but that the Holy Spirit, 'graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ.'

This is not to deny the fact that the Spirit's outward call (through the proclamation of the Gospel) can be, and often is, rejected by sinners; rather, it's that inward call which cannot be rejected. • ' (also known as 'perseverance of God with the saints' and 'preservation of the believing') (the word 'saints' is used to refer to all who are set apart by God, and not of those who are exceptionally,, or in heaven) asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end. Those who apparently fall away either never had true faith to begin with (1 John 2:19), or, if they are saved but not presently walking in the Spirit, they will be divinely chastened (Hebrews 12:5–11) and will repent (1 John 3:6–9).

Comparison among Protestants [ ] This table summarizes the classical views of three. Topic Human will: Humanity possesses 'free will', but it is in bondage to sin, until it is 'transformed'.: Humanity possesses free will in regard to 'goods and possessions', but is sinful by nature and unable to contribute to its own salvation. Humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not 'freedom from sin” unless enabled by '. In view of foreseen faith or unbelief.

Justification and atonement alone. Various views regarding the extent of the atonement., completed at Christ's death and effective through. Justification made through Christ's death, but only completed upon in Jesus. Conversion, through the means of grace,., through the,., resistible due to the common grace of free will. Perseverance and apostasy: the eternally elect in Christ will certainly persevere in faith. Falling away is possible, but God gives gospel. Upon continued faith in Christ; with the possibility of a final.

See also: Reformed Christians see the as the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under the 'old covenant' whom God chose, beginning with and.

The church is conceived of as both and. The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect. In order to identify the visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certain. For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ.

Others, including John Calvin, also including the right administration of the. Others, such as those following the, include a third mark of rightly administered, or exercise of censure against unrepentant sinners. These marks allowed the Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible rather than the or church tradition. The was used by the The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some Calvinists and Anabaptists on how the Bible orders public worship. The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited.

As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments with, which he considered violations of the ' prohibition of graven images. On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated in worship, though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms, and this practice typified and the worship of other Reformed churches for some time.

The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, Benedictions. Since the 19th century, however, some of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early followers went beyond the biblical requirements and that such things are circumstances of worship requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command. Despite the protestations of those who hold to a strict view of the regulative principle, today and musical instruments are in common use, as are styles with elements such as. Sacraments [ ]. See also:,, and The limits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted 'signs and seals of the covenant of grace.' Westminster speaks of 'a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other.'

Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed except and some. Baptism admits the baptized into the, and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized. On the Lord's supper, Westminster takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: 'the Lord's supper really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses.'

The does not use the term sacrament, but describes baptism and the Lord's supper as ordinances, as do most Baptists Calvinist or otherwise. Baptism is only for those who 'actually profess repentance towards God', and not for the children of believers. Baptists also insist on immersion or dipping, in contradistinction to other Reformed Christians. The Baptist Confession describes the Lord's supper as 'the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally, but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance', similarly to the Westminster Confession. There is significant latitude in Baptist congregations regarding the Lord's supper, and many hold the Zwinglian view.

Logical order of God's decree [ ]. Main article: There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man: (from the: supra, 'above', here meaning 'before' + lapsus, 'fall') and (from the Latin: infra, 'beneath', here meaning 'after' + lapsus, 'fall'). The former view, sometimes called 'high Calvinism', argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called 'low Calvinism', is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved.

Supralapsarians believe that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate and the need for salvation in the elect). In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be 'saved', one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must precede predestination to salvation or damnation. These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort, an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7).

The Westminster Confession of Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words 'clearly impl[ies]') the infralapsarian view, but is sensitive to those holding to supralapsarianism. The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists. Variants [ ] Part of on. Main article: Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism, post redemptionism, moderate Calvinism, or four-point Calvinism) is the belief that, prior to his decree of election, decreed for all alike if they believe, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then those whom he will bring to, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of. The efficacy of the atonement remains limited to those who believe. Named after its formulator, this doctrine is still viewed as a variety of Calvinism in that it maintains the particularity of sovereign grace in the application of the atonement. However, detractors like have termed it 'an inconsistent and therefore unstable form of Calvinism.'

Hyper-Calvinism [ ]. Main article: Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the early English in the 18th century. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to ' and believe' is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. The term also occasionally appears in both and secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of,, or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme. The Westminster Confession of Faith says that the gospel is to be freely offered to sinners, and the Larger Catechism makes clear that the gospel is offered to the non-elect. Neo-Calvinism [ ].

Main article: Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister. Has identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed Church 'West' and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists. The Seceders were largely and the Neo-Calvinists usually. Kuyper wanted to awaken the church from what he viewed as its pietistic slumber. He declared: No single piece of our mental world is to be sealed off from the rest and there is not a square inch in the whole domain of human existence over which Christ, who is sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!' This refrain has become something of a rallying call for Neo-Calvinists.

Christian Reconstructionism [ ]. Main article: Christian Reconstructionism is a Calvinist movement that has remained rather obscure. Founded by, the movement has had an important influence on the in the United States. The movement declined in the 1990s and was declared dead in a 2008 journal article.

However, it lives on in small denominations such as the and as a minority position in other denominations. Christian Reconstructionists are usually and followers of the of. They tend to support a decentralized political order resulting in capitalism.

[ ] New Calvinism [ ]. Main article: The New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world. In March 2009, Time magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the '10 ideas changing the world'. Some of the major figures in this area are,,,,,, and.

New Calvinists have been criticized for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on the sacraments and. Social and economic influences [ ] Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of ) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.

He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers. Politics and society [ ].

Reformed church in (Netherlands), 19th century Calvin's concept of God and man contained strong elements of freedom that were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society. After the successful fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, became the freest country in Europe. It granted asylum to persecuted religious minorities, e.g.

French, English (), and from Spain and Portugal. The ancestors of philosopher were Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial against, lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the., a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists. Was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas about. Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, e.g.

Galileo's Discorsi. The burning of the during the in 1556 Even more important than the liberal development of the Netherlands was the rise of modern in England and North America.

In the Middle Ages state and church had been closely connected. 's separated state and church in principle. His doctrine of the raised the laity to the same level as the clergy. Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen (, ) in his concept of. The Huguenots added whose members were also elected by the congregations.

The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government which was essentially a representative democracy.,, and are organized in a similar way. These denominations and the were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees. Another precondition for the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world was the fact that Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.

The aim of his political thought was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (). Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political and furthered the cause of democracy. The who founded (1620) and (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. Enjoying self-rule they practiced separation of powers.,, and, founded by,, and, respectively, combined democratic government with.

These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including. The in Haarlem,, c.

1665 In England, Baptists and influenced the liberal political thought of Presbyterian poet and politician and philosopher, who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country (, ) as well as in North America. The ideological basis of the was largely provided by the radical, who had been inspired by Milton, Locke,,, and other thinkers. The Whigs' 'perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on.' The, the and (American) initiated a tradition of human and civil rights that was continued in the French and the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries.

It is also echoed in the and the. In the nineteenth century, the churches that were based on Calvin's theology or influenced by it were deeply involved in social reforms, e.g.

The (,,, and others),, and. Members of these churches formed to help the impoverished masses., a Reformed pietist, founded the and initiated the.

Some sources would view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. The Boers and combined ideas from Calvinism and theology to justify apartheid in South Africa. As late as 1974, the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid. In 1990, the Dutch Reformed Church document Church and Society maintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, '.everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God.' It should be noted that these views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa. It was pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church which helped reverse apartheid in South Africa.

Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded (1636), (1701), and about a dozen other colleges. Was a Presbyterian foundation.

See also [ ]. • • • • •: Eastern Orthodox council rejecting Calvinist beliefs • Doctrine [ ] • • Related [ ] •: that hold to Reformed theology. •: followers of Calvinism in France, originating in the 16th and 17th century. •: Puritan separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration, eventually settling in. •: Calvinists in Scotland, Ireland and England. •: English separatists. •: Calvinist churches originating in continental Europe.

•: Italian Protestants, preceded Calvinism but today identify with Reformed theology Similar groups in other traditions [ ] •: German Protestants accused of Calvinist leanings within the Lutheran church in the late 16th century •: a radical, Roman Catholic Augustinian group with some doctrinal distinctives similar to those of Calvinism • • Opposing views [ ] • • • • References [ ]. See also: • Alston, Wallace M. Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.. • Balserak, Jon (2017). Calvinism: A Very Short Introduction.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.. Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism. New Haven: Yale University Press..

• Bratt, James D. (1984) Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative Subculture • (2017). Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450-1650.

New Haven: Yale University Press.. Calvinism: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, • (1967) [1954]. The History and Character of Calvinism. New York: Oxford University Press..

An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition: A Way of Being the Christian Community. Westminster John Knox Press.. The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA.. • ———————— (2003). After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA..

• Picken, Stuart D.B. Historical Dictionary of Calvinism..

• Small, Joseph D., ed. Conversations with the Confessions: Dialogue in the Reformed Tradition. Geneva Press.. External links [ ].