Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Philosophy [ ] ' philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his applied in philosophic areas leading to a of mind and matter.

Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). On the Inequality among Mankind. I consider the subject of the following discourse as one of the most interesting questions philosophy can. Himself having taken men out of a state of nature immediately after the creation, they are unequal only because it is His will they should be.

His was refined by 's (1690) and 's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by 's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his (1670) and (1677). These laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and second, the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be, whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative, which sought a return to faith. Father of classical criminal theory (1738–1794) Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a ', which was expressed historically in works by authors including,, and, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S.

Constitution) and as popularised by, would be the basis of. In 1776, Adam Smith published, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by drafts of (Paris, 1766).

Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator., a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Politics [ ] The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by, and most recently by Jonathan Israel. Theories of government [ ] John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought.

The English philosopher ushered in this new debate with his work in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be 'representative' and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. Like other Enlightenment philosophers, was critical of the Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property.

However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an 'unbiased judge' or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to.

Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that 'civil man' is corrupted, while 'natural man' has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established.

Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to 'Life, Liberty and Property' and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, wrote in 1706: 'There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn'. Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the and the French National Constituent Assembly's.

The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the and, the, religious and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the in particular to apply to every problem is considered the essential change. Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would 'never imagine that their consent made him sovereign', rather the authority did so.

Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without 'signing' a social contract.

Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights.

These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature because you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights. Enlightened absolutism [ ].

The, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms (abolished, significantly weakened the, created the basis for secular public schools and restructured the tax system), effectively ruling as a powerful, progressive dictator The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice —in other words, be a 'philosopher-king'. Main articles: and The 'Radical Enlightenment' promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to English philosopher (1632–1704). According to his principle of the, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Called for a 'wall of separation between church and state' at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the in Virginia and authored the. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of, and whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. National variations [ ]. Europe at the beginning of the, 1700 The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis.

For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office. Further information: The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment.

Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Argues that the reason for the neglect was the assumption that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical and it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim few thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals such as, and were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order.

Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment. One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was, the father of modern economic science Scotland [ ] In the, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges.

The Scottish network was 'predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment'. In France, said that 'we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization'. The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of, physician and chemist;, an;, physicist and chemist; and, the first modern geologist. American colonies [ ]. 's shows the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress Several Americans, especially and, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic.

Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as. Hp Dc7800 Pci Serial Port Driver Windows 7 X64. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon, and.

There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included in and by Thomas Jefferson in his short – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

German states [ ]. Further information: Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.

The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles. A medal minted during the reign of, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to and in Hungary —another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment. One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the, a 'realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture', in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of 'common concern' and argument was founded on reason.

Habermas uses the term 'common concern' to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is ) and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts. Was the earliest academic journal published in Europe The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch.

There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced. Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the 'cultivated public' away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the 'enlightened' ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities.

They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld 'the legitimacy of God-ordained authority'—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories. Encyclopedias and dictionaries [ ]. First page of the, published between 1751 and 1766 Although the existence of and spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite.

As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of.

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian has said that 'as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment'.

For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. The first technical dictionary was drafted by and entitled.

Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial along with the physical sciences and. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including ' (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The edition of the work even included foldout engravings. One Piece Unlimited Cruise Sp Download Rom Ita.

The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as, and. Conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the 'vast majority' of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ('the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession'), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education. In England, the also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading 's around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was 'a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate' and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a 'collective act' and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: 'Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants'. Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's 'moral constitution'. In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

Main article: The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include: • Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state. • Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric. • Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles. • 's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like 'Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?' An example of a French salon In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more 'genteel' rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was 'an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution'.

The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night. The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around 'confessional' – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the 'monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority'. After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a 'general process of rationalization and secularization set in' and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the 'escalating contest between faith and incredulity'. In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women.

However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee.

Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas. Masonic lodges [ ]. Masonic initiation ceremony Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington.

Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges.

They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—'liberty, fraternity and equality'. Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies.

Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement.

The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not. Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs.

They 'reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives'. In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities.

For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line 'As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened' was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to 'initiate the unenlightened'. This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy.

In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe. German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: 'On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges'. Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that 'although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right'.

Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.

Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French 'lodges of adoption' that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists. Important intellectuals [ ].