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The following is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the, a record of the development of human civilization beginning in and, and generally spreading westwards. Ancient Greek science, philosophy, democracy, architecture, literature, and art provided a foundation embraced and built upon by the as it swept up Europe, including the in its conquests in the 1st century BC. From its and origins, Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern,, and much of, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Nature of Western civilization [ ] • – The first civilizations made various unique contributions to the western civilizations. These contributions, which are likewise the achievements of antiquated civilizations, incorporate certain things in the zones of philosophy, art and engineering, and math and science. The antiquated civilizations were a momentous civilization in that they have made every one of these contributions and achievements while at the same time battling.

The most imperative regions of Greek achievement were math and science. They accomplished a wide range of things in the territories of brain science, astronomy, geometry, science, material science, and physics.

In philosophy, first civilizations had made numerous powerful contributions to western civilization. Greek philosophers were awesome thinkers who were resolved to look for truth to a specific subject or question regardless of where it drove them. The well-known philosophers trusted that life was not worth living unless it was inspected and the truth about existence was searched out. With a specific end goal to solve problems in life, Socrates created a method for taking care of these problems called the Socratic Method. On the planet today this method is generally known as the Scientific method and is utilized broadly in the region of science. Pluto additionally had numerous equitable thoughts which he communicated through his book.

Ultimately, Aristotle accepted unequivocally that human reason was critical. These thoughts alongside the thoughts of human thinking, norms for justice, and a majority rules system are as yet utilized as a part of Western civilization. The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident, is a term referring to different nations depending on the context. • • – Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, is a term used very broadly to refer to a of social norms,, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific Cultural artifacts and technologies. Antiquity: before 500 [ ]. Main article: • – Ancient Greek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including,,,,,,, and.

• – Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of, a state in northern ancient Greece. • – Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that began growing on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BCE. • – The Roman Empire was the post-Roman Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. • – The Migration Period, also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period of intensified human migration in Europe from about 400 to 800.

• – from 370 to 500; invasion extended into what is now modern France and Germany. Rise of Christendom [ ] • – Judaism – 'religion, philosophy, and way of life' of the Jewish people, based on the ancient Mosaic Law. • – Christianity – monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. • – The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, its followers and the Church with its various Christian denominations, from the Christianity in the 1st century to the Christianity in the present.

• – The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire. The Middle Ages [ ]. Main article: • – Saint Patrick was a Romano-Briton and Christian missionary, who is the most generally recognized patron saint of Ireland or the Apostle of Ireland, although Brigid of Kildare and Colmcille are also formally patron saints. • – literate monks became some of the last preservers in Western Europe of the poetic and philosophical works of Western antiquity.

Skellig Michael, also known as Great Skellig, is a steep rocky island in the Atlantic Ocean about 14.5 kilometres from the coast of County Kerry, Republic of Ireland. • – Clovis or Chlodowech was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler, changing the leadership from a group of royal chieftains, to rule by kings, ensuring that the kingship was held by his heirs. • – first preached c. 610 – Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a Religious text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God in Islam, and by the teachings and normative example of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of Allah. • (711-1492) – the Islamic empire in southwestern Europe, particularly Spain, Portugal and South France – The term, 'dominion of a caliph ', refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the leaders unity of the Muslim Ummah. • – in 732, stopped Islamic advance into Europe. Charles Martel, also known as Charles the Hammer, was a Frankish military and political leader, who served as Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian kings and ruled de facto during an interregnum at the end of his life, using the title Duke and Prince of the Franks.

• – Charlemagne also known as Charles the Great, was King of the Franks from 768 and Holy Roman Emperor from 800 to his death in 814. • – Alfred the Great was King of Wessex from 871 to 899.

• – The Norse colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th century, when explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic, including the northeastern fringes of North America. High Middle Ages: 1000–1300 [ ].

Main article: • in Germany and central Europe, established in 962 (survives until 1806) • – Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. • – The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with more than one billion members. • – Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1209. • – The Order of Preachers, after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France. • – Roman Catholic Mariology is theology concerned with the as developed by the Catholic Church. • – Chivalry, or the chivalric code, is the traditional code of conduct associated with the medieval institution of knighthood. • – The Crusades were a series of religious expeditionary wars blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church, with the stated goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem.

• – began in the as centers of advanced education, some of them ultimately evolving into. Some of these institutions continued into modern times. • – Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context. • – Scientific method refers to a body of Scientific techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. • – Anselm of Canterbury is called the founder of and is famous as the originator of the for the. • – The Walk to Canossa refers to both the trek itself of Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire from Speyer to the in Emilia Romagna and to the events surrounding his journey, which took place in and around January 1077. • – Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum, is an English charter, originally issued in the year 1215 and reissued later in the 13th century in modified versions.

• – The Battle of Agincourt was a major English victory against a numerically superior French army in the Hundred Years' War. • – The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. • – A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects and provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. • of Russia, Hungary, and other areas, 13th century. Late Middle Ages: 1300–1500 [ ].

Main article: • – The Western Schism or Papal Schism was a split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417. • – An extremely protracted conflict between and lasting from 1337 to 1453.

• – The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. • – The Fall of Constantinople was the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the, which occurred after a siege by the Ottoman Empire, under the command of 21-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, against the defending army commanded by Constantine XI Palaiologos. • – The middle class is a class of people in the middle of a societal hierarchy, also known as bourgeoisie, or burghers. Cara Mengatasi Idm Cannot Download The File Because Of Time Out. • – Kills between 1/3 to 1/2 of Europe's population. Renaissance and reformation [ ] The Renaissance: 14th to 17th Century [ ]. Main article: • – The Italian Renaissance was the earliest manifestation of the general European Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement that began in Italy around the end of the 13th century and lasted until the 16th century, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe.

• – Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. • – Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. • – Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch, Roman Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. • – Sir Thomas More, known by Catholics as Saint Thomas More since 1935, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman, and noted. • – Christopher Columbus was an explorer, colonizer, and navigator, born in the Republic of Genoa, in what is today northwestern Italy. • – Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the ideal.

• – Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira, was a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. • – The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus. • – The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria. • – Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. The reformation: 1500–1650 [ ].

Main article: • – a denomination of formed by, which split from in the early 16th Century, causing much conflict and strife. • – a term referring to the process by which emerged and gained supporters.

• – the backlash to the by, resulting in a great deal of fighting, most notably the. • – a conflict fought mainly in the involving virtually all countries in, fought over religious preeminence.

Rise of Western empires: 1500–1800 [ ] • – The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration and the Great Navigations, was a period in history starting in the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans engaged in intensive exploration of the world, establishing direct contact with Africa, the Americas, Asia and Oceania and mapping the planet. • – The Colonial empires were a product of the European Age of Exploration that began with a race of exploration between the then most advanced maritime powers, Portugal and Spain, in the 15th century. • – Mercantilism is the economic doctrine in which government control of foreign trade is of paramount importance for ensuring the prosperity and military security of the state. Enlightenment [ ] • – The divine right of kings, or divine-right theory of kingship, is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. • – The period during which superstitions were rejected in favor of and, typically thought of as the dawn of modern science.

Revolution: 1770–1815 [ ] • – The Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with Great Britain, regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. • – The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which the in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the. • – The French Revolution, was a period of in France that had a major impact on France and indeed all of Europe. • – Mary Wollstonecraft was an 18th-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. Drivers Lexmark 5400 Windows 8.

• – A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects, written by the 18th-century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. Napoleonic Wars [ ] • – The First French Empire, also known as the Greater French Empire or Napoleonic Empire, was the empire of Napoleon I of France Napoleon I of France. • – A disastrous military campaign in which, with his armies, attempted to seize. Instead of fighting conventionally, Russian forces merely retreated, taking all of the food with them, resulting in Napoleon reaching but his armies dying of hunger. • – The Kingdom of Spain was a short-lived client state of the French Empire that briefly existed during the Peninsular War, a contest between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. 1815–1870 [ ] Rise of the English-speaking world: 1815–1870 [ ] • – The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. • – The Luddites were a social movement of 19th-century English textile artisans who protested – often by destroying mechanized looms – against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, that replaced them with less skilled, low wage labour, and which they felt were leaving them without work and changing their way of life.

United Kingdom & British Empire: 1815–1870 [ ] • – The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. • – Pax Britannica was the period of relative peace in Europe and the world during which the British Empire controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. • – Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified, or blended constitution. • – Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery.

• – Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. • – The history of Australia from 1788–1850 covers the early colonies period of Australia's history, from the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney to establish the penal colony of New South Wales in 1788 to the European exploration of the continent and establishment of other colonies and the beginnings of autonomous democratic government.

• – New Zealand is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. United States: 1815–1870 [ ] • – The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. • – The Oregon Country was a predominantly American term referring to a disputed ownership region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. • – Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. • – The Confederate States of America was a government set up from 1861 to 1865 by eleven Southern slave states that had declared their secession from the United States. • – The Emancipation Proclamation is an executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War using his war powers. • – also known as Seward's Folly, the Alaska territory was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867.

Fall of the Spanish Empire: 1833–1898 [ ] • from death of (1833) to 1898 • Continental Europe: 1815–1870 [ ] • – The decline of the Ottoman Empire is the period that followed after the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire in which the empire experienced several economic and political setbacks. • or Austro-Hungarian Empire, formed in 1867, ends during World War I. • – The North German Confederation was a federation of 22 independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. • – common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich, designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Kaiser Wilhelm II. Culture, arts and sciences 1815-1914 [ ] • – The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, signed on 15 July 1801. • – The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

• – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when it included the territory now known as the Republic of Ireland. • – Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. His body lies beneath the in in a spectacular covered in depictions of his accomplishments in.

• – A pioneer of antiseptic surgery, who greatly reduced the mortality rate for many operations. • – The periodic table is a tabular display of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their properties. • – Neoclassicism is the name given to Western Cultural movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the 'classical' art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome. • – Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1840. • – In philosophy, Realism, or Realist or Realistic are terms that describe manifestations of philosophical realism, the belief that reality exists independently of observers. • – Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent art exhibition exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s in spite of harsh opposition from the art community in France.

New imperialism: 1870–1914 [ ] • – The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa or Partition of Africa was a process of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the New Imperialism period, between 1881 and World War I in 1914. • Opium Wars – The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, divided into the from 1839 to 1842 and the from 1856 to 1860, were the climax of disputes over trade and diplomatic relations between China under the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire.

• – The Boxer Rebellion, also known as Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan Movement, was a proto-Chinese movement by the 'Righteous Harmony Society' in China between 1898 and 1901, opposing foreign imperialism and Christianity. • – A short lived conflict over several territories in the, most notably, in reaction to a massacre of Armenians. • – The last continent to be discovered, and the outlet for much Imperial ambition, until it was realised that the remoteness of the continent made a settlement impossible. Great powers and the First World War: 1870–1918 [ ] United States: 1870–1914 [ ] • – The period following the during which were granted status equal to.

After several years of this, a backlash reversed many of these reforms. • enforcing racial segregation in the U.S. Are enacted in states and localities from 1876 until the modern Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. Europe: 1870–1914 [ ] • – The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia.

• – The German Empire is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich, designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Kaiser Wilhelm II. British dominions: 1870–1914 [ ] • – The Constitution Act, 1867, is a major part of Canada's Constitution, that created the Dominion of Canada from colonies of the former British North America.

• – The Dominion of New Zealand is the former name of the Realm of New Zealand. New alliances [ ] • – a militaristic alliance made between,, and. In, these countries (with the exception of Italy) fought against those in the.

• – an alliance between,, and. This alliance, supplemented with others, was a counterbalance to the. World War I (1914-1918) [ ]. Main article: • – The countries fighting against the powers during. • – The Battle of Britain is the name given to the World War II air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940.

• – Pearl Harbor, known to Hawaiians as Puuloa, is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu, Hawaii. • – The Pacific War, also sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War refers broadly to the parts of World War II that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in East Asia, then called the Far East. • – The Sandakan Death Marches were a series of in Borneo from Sandakan to Ranau, Malaysia which resulted in the deaths of more than 3,600 Indonesian civilian slave labourers and 2,400 Allied prisoners of war held captive by the Empire of Japan during the Pacific campaign of World War II at prison camps in North Borneo.

• – The Battle of Midway is widely regarded as the most important naval battle of the Pacific Campaign of World War II. • – The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of approximately six million European Jews and 5 million other people during World War II, a programme of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, throughout Nazi-occupied territory. • – The United Nations, is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. • – West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. • – The German Democratic Republic, informally known as East Germany, was a socialist state established by the USSR in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, including East Berlin of the Allied-occupied capital city. Fall of the Western empires: 1945–1980 [ ] • • • – France loses southeast Asian territories from 1946 to 1954.

• • (1947) • (1908 to 1960) Cold War: 1945–1991 [ ]. This section is empty. You can help. (June 2012) Western civilization publications [ ] • Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization by, Encounter Books, 2002 •: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe by, 1995. • Atlas of World Military History, edited by Richard Brooks. New York: HarperCollins, 2000.

• A Military History of the Western World. Three Volumes.

New York:, 1987 and 1988. • – the original was published between 1776 and 1789 in six volumes by the firm of &, in the Strand, London. Scholars of Western civilization [ ]. • There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is // or //, and whether the a is pronounced //, // or (when the stress is on the first syllable) // (Merriam Webster). The most common are (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and (American Heritage Dictionary). • /ʔiˈslaːm/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from []~ []~ [].

The second vowel ranges from []~ []~ []~ []. At some geographic regions, such as Northwestern Africa they don't have. • 9/11 is pronounced 'nine eleven'. The slash is not part of the pronunciation. The name is frequently used in British English as well as American English even though the dating conventions differ: '9/11' in British English would normally refer to 9 November. References [ ].

In the past and in the present, research studies and media reports have focused on pathology and dysfunction in aboriginal communities and have often failed to present a true and complete picture of the aboriginal experience. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research Institute of Aboriginal Peoples’ Health is a national strategic research initiative led by both the aboriginal and research communities. This initiative aims to improve aboriginal health information, develop research capacity, better translate research into practice, and inform public health policy with the goal of improving the health of indigenous peoples. ORIGINS OF THE INSTITUTE OF ABORIGINAL PEOPLES’ HEALTH In response to a growing public health burden, the idea for creating a research institute devoted solely to aboriginal health had its genesis in September 1999. A group of leading Canadian health researchers, aboriginal and nonaboriginal, urged the federal government to consider a specialized research funding agency dedicated to aboriginal health research and capacity building. The group firmly believed this approach would contribute significantly to the overall health and well-being of aboriginal people and hasten the elimination of disparities between aboriginal and nonaboriginal populations.

The researchers also envisioned a cadre of expert and emerging researchers who would form a Canada-wide network that would strengthen information gathering and sharing, leading to heightened awareness and improved health among aboriginal populations. The objective of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) is “to excel, according to internationally accepted standards of scientific excellence in the creation of new knowledge and its translation into improved health for Canadians, more effective health services and products and a strengthened Canadian health care system.” CIHR was presented with the group’s recommendations and subsequently launched the Institute of Aboriginal Peoples’ Health (CIHR-IAPH) in early 2000. Consistent with the overall CIHR mandate, CIHR-IAPH promotes holistic and crossdisciplinary health exploration embracing the 4 pillars of health research—biomedical, clinical, health systems and services, and social, cultural, and environmental factors—as they affect the health of aboriginal populations.

Health research that has a positive impact on the mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual health of aboriginal people at all life stages is promoted by CIHR-IAPH. Improving Access to Appropriate Health Services for Marginalized Groups Members of marginalized groups may have limited access to, or feel constrained in accessing, appropriate health services. This research project involves a team of researchers who are exploring innovative ways to enhance access to health services for people on the fringes of society.

Research results will inform policy, program, and management decisions relating to improved access to appropriate health services for identifiable marginalized groups. Aboriginal Capacity and Developmental Research Environments (ACADRE) A key CIHR-IAPH goal is to build capacity by developing researchers and providing continued support for scientific careers in aboriginal health research. The groundbreaking ACADRE program was launched on October 11, 2001, with up to Can $12 million in funding for the first 4 ACADRE centers over the next 6 years. These 4 centers are the initial links in what will become a network of centers across Canada responsible not only for developing the next generation of aboriginal health researchers, but also for focusing research efforts on determinants of health in aboriginal communities. As they grow into their new roles, the 4 ACADRE centers will become more involved with the global aboriginal health research network and share their expertise with others around the world.

Their joint goals are to promote information sharing on best practices in research methodology, develop resourceful partnerships, support ethical conduct, encourage community engagement, advance knowledge translation, and build research capacity through training and experience. Increasingly, they will initiate and participate in international exchange programs for researchers and research students involved in indigenous peoples’ health. Centre for Aboriginal Health Research, Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Centre for Aboriginal Health Research, affiliated with the University of Manitoba, was the first center to receive ACADRE funding. Its efforts will be concentrated in areas where the University of Manitoba has already established excellence in aboriginal health.

Primary research themes include population health, health services, child health and development, and ethical issues in aboriginal health research. A secondary objective is to develop a research environment that encourages aboriginal students to pursue careers in health research. Health science career camps and undergraduate internships in health research are program ideas in the offing.

National Aboriginal Health Research Training Program, Edmonton, Alberta. The Edmonton ACADRE center was set up to create a collaborative and interactive network of mentors in aboriginal health research training, bringing together resources from academia and aboriginal communities. This program will concentrate on research in 3 areas: (1) chronic health issues such as diabetes and heart and lung diseases; (2) child health, including fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects, nutrition, and acute illness; and (3) addiction, mental health, and suicide. Indigenous Peoples’ Health Research Centre, Regina, Saskatchewan. This research program is led by the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, in partnership with the Universities of Regina and Saskatchewan. It takes a holistic approach, focusing on 4 areas: (1) chronic disease, nutrition, and lifestyle; (2) indigenous or traditional healing methods for addictions, including fetal alcohol syndrome, and mental health; (3) health delivery and control, including ethics, community development, and governance; and (4) environmental health.

Anisnawbe Kekendazone, Ottawa, Ontario. Community Information and Epidemiological Technologies Canada and the Institute of Population Health at the University of Ottawa were also awarded a 3-year ACADRE grant. The center they established, Anisnawbe Kekendazone, will train aboriginal researchers by offering them opportunities to participate in high-profile indigenous research projects in Canada and around the world.

Initial health research priorities at this facility are perinatal health, youth at risk and resilience, and knowledge translation (communicating health research knowledge to aboriginal communities in a way that is readily understood). National Network for Aboriginal Mental Health Research The innovative National Network for Aboriginal Mental Health Research, launched in November 2001, is cofunded by CIHR-IAPH and the CIHR Institute of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Addiction. The network addresses critical mental health needs of aboriginal people in rural and urban settings. It will train new researchers and will provide research consultation services for and in collaboration with aboriginal communities. Possible areas of mental health research include alcohol and drug addictions, volatile substance abuse, compulsive behaviors, suicide, abuse of prescription drugs, and sexual abuse. Graduate Student Support A significant portion of CIHR-IAPH funds go toward capacity building by supporting and nurturing graduate students pursuing careers in aboriginal health research. In March 2001, CIHR-IAPH hosted a gathering at the University of British Columbia at which 24 graduate students from across the country discussed capacity building and support, peer review and ethics, and knowledge translation and communications.

They also shared their research with the group and voiced concerns over a number of issues, such as the need for more support from CIHR-IAPH, ethical research protocols, and a lack of networking opportunities. After that event, many more graduate students identified themselves to CIHR-IAPH. As a result, 60 participants attended the second such gathering, which was held in Ottawa in March 2002 in conjunction with the CIHR-IAPH advisory board meeting (photo on page 1399). STRATEGIC RESEARCH INITIATIVES FOR 2001–2002 CIHR-IAPH posted several requests for applications on research topics that were linked to at least 1 of the institute’s 4 priorities, including a focus on child and youth health, diabetes and stress, fetal alcohol syndrome and effects, HIV/AIDS, improving access to appropriate health services for marginalized groups, preventable injuries and accidents, and innovative projects. The focus of the request for applications for “innovative projects” is on social and culture-based studies that aim to improve health (e.g., studies on traditional medicine, midwifery, or the link between indigenous knowledge and health). INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS Health disparities between aboriginal people and the general population in Canada are strikingly similar to those experienced by indigenous people in other developed, postcolonial countries with minority indigenous populations, including Native Americans, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians.

Canada can learn much from research conducted outside its borders. Thus, CIHR-IAPH has contacted several aboriginal health research organizations around the world, with impressive results. A memorandum of understanding was signed in 2002 by chief executive officers of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, and the Health Research Council of New Zealand to cooperate on health research for indigenous populations.

On January 31, 2002, the Health Secretariat of the United Mexican States and CIHR signed a letter of intent to develop “health research, research training, clinical training, and knowledge translation based on equality, reciprocity, and mutual benefit.” Areas of potential collaboration agreed upon include environmental health, genetics and genomics, needs of indigenous people and vulnerable populations, health policy development, health services, financing, and electronic forms of knowledge transfer. PARTNERSHIPS WITH ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES, ORGANIZATIONS, AND INDIVIDUALS Perhaps the most important partnership of all is with aboriginal communities and individuals. CIHR-IAPH will ensure that aboriginal people are full partners in research, not merely informants and respondents. In the past, research has not always helped aboriginal communities, because it failed to address urgent health concerns and because there was little or no aboriginal ownership of research projects.

Increasingly, aboriginal communities are incorporating the principles of ownership, control, access, and possession into health research activities affecting them. These principles support valid and reliable research processes and products, which are based on aboriginal community needs and priorities and relevance within the context of aboriginal self-determination. Furthermore, these principles promote broader understanding and ways of knowing that include a more holistic approach, drawing heavily upon community-based, participatory research methods. TRANSLATION AND USE OF KNOWLEDGE Making research relevant to people is the cornerstone on which CIHR-IAPH stands; therefore, knowledge translation is essential. The term refers to the exchange, synthesis, and ethical application of knowledge by researchers and users. The goal is to accelerate the benefits of aboriginal health research, such as more effective services and products, a stronger health care system for indigenous people, and improved overall health. All applications requesting CIHR-IAPH research funding must explain how research results will be disseminated and communicated in ways that are meaningful and beneficial to aboriginal organizations, communities, and individuals.

CONCLUSION In Canada, indigenous peoples recognize that their legitimate aspirations to achieve selfdetermination are linked to the health of their families, community members, and nations. The principle of selfdetermination underscores the idea that health and well-being are achieved through success in a myriad of interconnected and developmental activities and that success is possible only within the context of selfdetermination. It is also recognized that equal human rights are achieved, in part, through autonomous and independent institutional development in pursuit of community self-determination. Recently, the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues affirmed the importance of health information, including research: “For health equity approaches to be successful, systematic health and demographic information on all marginalized and disadvantaged groups, including indigenous and tribal peoples, is needed.

Sharing of information on approaches to health care reform and the support of innovative approaches to health care delivery. Clearly, a significant opportunity exists for meaningful transborder cooperation and collaboration between the national health research agencies of Canada and the United States. The creation of CIHR-IAPH as part of the Canadian health research enterprise is a recognition both of the contribution that an advanced research agenda can make to improve the public health burden borne by indigenous peoples and of the potential contributions that different “ways of knowing” could make to improving public health.